Monday, December 9, 2013

Children as Witnesses



I believe children can be reliable witnesses if the right professional is conducting the interviews, especially the initial one.  Child sexual abuse is the most  controversial crime because it affects the most innocent and weakest members of society. As a mother I cannot stand crimes against children and every time I see child abuse cases, I automatically see my children’ faces.  With this in mind I believe when officers involve in sexual abuse cases against children, feel the same way I do, and desperately try to find the guilty person. Officers interviewing the young victims,  have no doubt like I did before children would never lie about such crime. After all, how can a 4 year-old have such detailed ideas about sexual attitudes and actions? . However, the readings for the week proved me somewhat wrong, demonstrating children are not better witnesses as adults. According to Costanzo & Krauss (2012), because the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information is not fully developed in young children, the problems surrounding memory are significantly amplified when a witness to a victim is a child” (p. 236).
I believe children can describe most accurately a sexual abuse situation if the professional knows how ask questions  without inducing stress in the child. According to Goodman (2005),  “accuracy of children's testimony heavily depends on how they are interviewed” (p.1) and questions that give a child the chance to express themselves and tell the story.  Psychologists should be the ones interviewing child victims instead of officers because officers are trying to find the guilty person, but the psychologist is trying to find the truth, even if there is no crime or criminal.

Developing a Research Hypothesis



The topic I chose is bullying at schools because I am particularly impressed on how much young children can feel hate and satisfaction by making another classmate suffer. The article is called “Cohesion and power in the families of children involved in bully/victim problems at school”, encompassing the relationship between children and their families and how this is related to bulling other classmates. The power and cohesion seems to be very helpful on how to describe family systems. In addition, power and cohesion can also predict which children will bully be victims themselves. The study was conducted selecting 20 bullies, 20 bully/victims, and 20 control children, from three middle schools by a system of peer nomination. These students completed the Family System Test (FAST) to gather information on how they perceived their families on the elements of power and cohesion. The study aims to understand why some children become bullies and victims and others do not. The researchers seem to believe the family structure and negative relationship with the parents, have a great influence on negative behavior toward others. According to Bowers1992), “(Olweus (1980) has also argued that the emotional attitude of parents is an important factor in determining how the child’s peer relations develop at school. He found that a negative emotional attitude by the primary caregiver, together with permissiveness of aggression and use of power-assertive methods of discipline, increased the chance that a child will later become aggressive towards others”.
The research was descriptive, because the selected students were interviewed about other classmates and had to complete the FAST assessment. The research was also correlational because it was testing for statistical relationships between the variables suing the Pythagoras’ Theorem.  
My hypothesis predicts negative family structure will engender a bully child. The independent variable is negative family structure because it can change the dependent variable, which is the child. I strongly believe parents have a great influence on their children and can teach them positive social skills.  Parents who teach empathy for others and tolerance can have a different impact on their children. Also, a positive family structure influences children to have a high-self-esteem, which makes it less possible to be victims of bully.

References
Bowers, Louise,Smith, Peter K.,Binney, Valerie.” Cohesion and power in the families of children involved in bully/victim problems at school”. Journal of Family Therapy VL  - 14 IS  - 4. Blackwell Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j..1992.00467.x. Retrieved from Walden University.


Methodology



This essay will evaluate the "The Role of Culture in the Representation of Conflict in Dreams: A Comparison of Bedouin, Irish, and Israeli Children”, from the methodology point of view. In addition, the sample selection will be evaluated, whether or not there was bias and what could have been done to prevent this. Data collection process and interpretation of results will also be analyzed to offer suggestions on how to improve the research.

·         Name the independent and dependent variables in the study described in "The Role of Culture in the Representation of Conflict in Dreams: A Comparison of Bedouin, Irish, and Israeli Children"
The independent variable in this study are the  Bedouin, Irish, and Israeli Children because, “Ethnicity, nationality, or other cultural identification of the members of studied groups will typically represent the independent variable.” (Shiraev & Levy, 2010, p.38).                                          
The dependent variable is the conflict in dreams because “the aspect of human activity that is studied and expected to change under influence of the independent variable is called the dependent variable.” (Shiraev & Levy, 2010, p.38).

·         Evaluate the sample selection, and include your thoughts on whether or not there was a bias in the sample selection. If so, explain what might have been done to prevent the bias.
The sample selection was systematic because the psychologists chose children from  three cultures, Irish, Israeli, and Bedouin. The participants were 26 Bedouin children from seminomadic tribe, 24 Israeli children from a large rural area, and 27 Irish children from an isolated fishing village. The first problem I encountered with the study is the number of subjects who participated, a small representative number of each culture. Shiraev & Levy state “the smaller the sample, the greater the sampling error, and the greater the result of chance factors." (p.34). Another bias I believe I found is  that the children were students, a fact that does not make these children representative sample of their culture. Bedouin children constantly move and some of them might not attend school; the Israeli children who participated in this research, are from a large rural area, making them different from other Israeli children living in other areas; the Irish children lived in an isolated village away from any war conflicts. To prevent any bias, I would use random sampling and a larger sample, to lower the sampling error.

·         Evaluate the data collection process and consider any potential problems with how the reports about the dreams were collected. Explain how the data collection process could be improved.
The children were given a copybook to record their dreams on their awakening and were interviewed for 7 successive days.  If necessary, the children were asked details about their dreams. Dreams reports were tape-recorded and later translated. Some potential problems I see with how the reports were collected are the interpreter who interviewed the children, whether the children recorded their dreams every day, and what level of education they had to be able to express what they had dreamed. In order to understand the Bedouin and Israeli children, not only a knowledge of the language is necessary, but their culture as well. If the interpreter was from their respective cultures, how much knowledge of English they had to be able to translate exactly what the children reported of their dreams?. Another question I have is whether the children easily expressed what they wanted to say about their dreams; I wonder if the Bedouin children had as much schooling completed as the Israeli and Irish, since they moved quite often.  The research does not mention the interpreter for the Bedouin and Israeli children, was from the same culture or a person with knowledge of the respective language. According to Shiraev & Levy ( 2010), “one of the most difficult tasks appears before the investigator: to make sure that the translated version of the method is as close to the original version as possible. However, even a well-translated version of a test is always different from the original one.” (p.40). I would use the naturalistic observation to better understand the events the Bedouin, Israeli, and Irish children; I would observe how their family structures are, how much peer influence they have, if they abused at home and as a result there is greater representation of conflicts.

·         Evaluate the interpretation of the results. Explain any problems with how the results were interpreted and offer suggestions to improve the interpretation.
I do not  believe a quantitative method to interpret dreams is the best one to use. First of all, there is an uneven number of girls and boys within each culture and I believe boys see the world and react different than the girls. In addition, the psychologists used a rating method for the dreams that were rated by three individuals, who were trained to use the Conflict Rating Schedule. Although these individuals were naïve as to the country of the children, they based they rating on the transcribed material, being the reason I think the results may not be as accurate. An example of disagreement I had with the interpretation of results, is the one that states “in conflictual dreams, other characters appearing in the dream were less likely to be friends or relatives of the dreamer and more likely to be strangers, as compared to dream participants in nonconflictual dreams.” (Levine, 1991). However, the father and the mother were present in the  conflictual dream described by a Bedouin child; an Irish child described the conflictual dream but never mentioned whether there were strangers or relatives with him. An Israeli child reported a conflictual dream with strangers and his father as well, mentioning “we were planting”, which could mean he was with people he knew too. One of the results caught my attention is the Social Responsibility rate the Bedouin children got, only an 8%. According to Levine, “in this community, a  high value appeared to be place on the welfare of the group as opposed to the individual, as evidenced by the Bedouin’s emphasis on hospitality and the presence of large extended families, which constituted a highly supportive social system.” (Levine, 1991). I would improve the interpretation of results by understanding their culture, making sure I observe everything is not easily noticed at first.

·         Select a method that is different from that used in the survey. Explain how you could study the same topic in the reading by conducting a study using the method you chose.
I would study the same topic using qualitative method because I believe human interactions and emotions, cannot be studied using numbers. Before conducting the survey or interview, I would observe the participants in their natural habitat, so they would feel comfortable answering questions to the researchers. Surveys can be misleading because the children might be highly influenced by adults in their community and could be scared to express their dreams in front of other children and adults. Also, I would choose an application-oriented strategy since one research method might not work for certain cultures. In addition to recording the reports of dreams, I would video-record the participants in order to observe non-verbal language when talking to the researcher. Non-verbal language could say more than the child could verbally express about his dreams.












Applying Crisis Intervention Models, Skills, and Strategies



The essay will analyze the Rodriguez family case study and the ecosystemic crisis they are facing. The basic needs that fist must be addressed for the family are clothing and personal care items and the ongoing needs are housing and income. The CCP and CISM model  are the most adequate crisis intervention models to address the Rodriguez ‘s basin and ongoing needs.
           The Rodriguez family has lost everything due to a flood that has recently occurred near to their home. The flood destroyed many houses and businesses, including their home. The Rodriguez family is composed of the dad, Michael; the mom, Sarah; and their twin daughters, Cynthia and Mary. The Rodriguez family has not flood insurance and the only source of income is Sarah’s job at restaurant that has also been destroyed in the flood. The immediate crisis is to provide the Rodriguez family with clothing, personal care items, such as deodorant, toothbrush and toothpaste, feminine items if needed, and any prescription drugs a member of the family might need to take regularly. Because the Rodriguez have lost everything, they are currently in  a state of immobility and the immediate goal of the crisis worker is to bring the family to a state of mobility. The ongoing needs of the Rodriguez family is to find a place to live and apply for government assistance to support them while they get back on their feet. Also, the parents are in need of a job to continue to pay their bills. The issues which will need to be addressed in order to remove the Rodriguez family form the current crisis are housing and income. The mentioned crisis should be an acute crisis and according to James, Gilliland,  and Lloyd James ( 2012), “The onetime crisis is assessed and treated quite differently from the chronic crisis. The one time crisis client usually requires direct intervention to facilitate getting over the specific event or situation that precipitated the crisis” ( p.69).
The CCP model and the CISM model intervention are the most adequate crisis interventions in this case. The CCP model is mostly used for natural disaster response. This model “model assesses strengths, seeks to restore predisaster functioning, accepts content at face value, validates common reactions, and has a psychoeducational focus” (Castellano, C., & Plionis, E., 2006, p.1). The CCP is an adequate model intervention for the Rodriguez family, helping them to obtain the basic needs such us clothing and personal care items. The Rodriguez family will beneficiate form counseling, information on resources available to disaster victims, and community support services. The CISM model intervention will meet the ongoing needs by offering and adaptive, short-term psychological help. The CISM will help the Rodriguez family to deal with the crisis talking one incident at the time. It allows the victims to think about solutions to overcome the recent crisis and there is generally a follow-up after the crisis events.
There are three skills that would assist you in implementing the crisis intervention models. Listening skills are important to understand the client’s concerns. Open ended-questions  are efficient to encourage clients to respond with more extensive answers and talk about their feelings. According to James, R. K. & Gilliland, B.E. (2013).” Intervention sessions begin with crisis workers practicing what are called the core listening skills: empathy, genuineness, and acceptance or positive regard” (p. 53).  As mentioned before, empathy skills are necessary to a successful crisis intervention. The crisis worker should verbally communicate empathetic understanding, reflect feelings, and silence as a way to express empathic understanding. The Rodriguez family needs to feel the crisis worker truly understand the stressful situation they are going through. The third crisis intervention skill is communication            genuineness. The crisis worker should be himself, in other words, being honest. Michael and Sarah Rodriguez would feel comfortable expressing their feelings and concerns to a crisis worker who can understand frustration and hostile expressions. In addition, it is more likely that the crisis worker has gone through a devastating flood or some sort of natural disaster, if he or she is from the area. The clients would find some support if the crisis worker happened to share his or her own experiences about his or her own loss. The listening, empathetic and communication genuineness will give the strength to overcome the crisis and meet their basic and ongoing needs

Crisis Intervention Models



The two crisis intervention models resonates  the most to me are the telephone crisis counseling and the empowerment approach.
Most of the crisis counseling is handled by phone  and is the most often used method of suicide intervention. Typically the counselor does not have a degree but the talk can still be effective in dealing with crisis. Not only suicidal people call the crisis intervention lines, but people with panic attacks, who feel lonely, relationship issues, or depressed. The two most important strengths the telephone crisis intervention  has: Convenience and client anonymity.
Convenience:  everybody has phones, especially cell phones which makes it the fastest way to get help fast and from the conform of your own home. Cell phones are particularly handy because the client can call at the time the event is happening. According to James, R. K. & Gilliland, B.E. (2013), “ with the new smart phones, not only can clients avail themselves of a crisis hotline or their therapist, they can also access a variety of self-help groups in chat rooms, computer-assisted therapy, and psychoeducational materials” (p. 120). For instance, a woman who is about to commit suicide can call at the time of the event to the suicidal line, instead of waiting to make an appointment with a psychologist. The crisis intervention is not a long-term therapy solution but it will discourage her from committing suicide at the time.
Client anonymity: many issues are too embarrassing to discuss in person, especially at the time of the event. The phone gives that personal touch but  allows the client to hide from the listener. Anonymity provides more security and encourages the client to talk about his or her issue. For this reason, the crisis worker only obtains the client’s first name to keep the identity private. According to James, R. K. & Gilliland, B.E. (2013),” the ability to hide one’s identity may facilitate greater openness and freedom from inhibition” (p. 120).
Perhaps a limitation with the telephone crisis intervention is that the crisis worker is not able to see the client face to face and look at his or her facial expressions. Another limitation is the amount of callers who call constantly call and tie up the lines because they suffer from a chronic crisis they can’t get over.
The empowerment approach states the empowerment can occur at numerous levels such as intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral levels. According to Ullman, S. E., & Townsend, S. M. (2008), “ empowerment may be seen as a process by which individuals begin to see a closer correspondence between their goals and a sense of how to achieve them, and a relationship between their efforts and life outcomes” (p. 2). There are two strengths and limitations within the empowerment approach:
Regain control: A main characteristic of the empowerment approach is to help the client gain control. Especially in sexually assault cases, the victim loses control and lose their empowerment.
Social support: encourages victims to work and get involved with other victims. It helps the victim to socialize again with no fear.
However, the meaning of empowerment means more than just awareness of power. Client should understand it is about the exercise rather than the possession of control.